# Results summary

#### Mathematical Foundations of Physical Systems Modeling Languages

Modern modeling languages for general physical systems, such as Modelica or Simscape, rely on Differential Algebraic Equations (DAE), i.e., constraints of the form $f\left(\stackrel{˙}{x},x,u\right)=0$ . This facilitates modeling from first principles of the physics. This year we completed the development of the mathematical theory needed to sound, on solid mathematical bases, the design of compilers and tools for DAE based physical modeling languages.

Unlike Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE, of the form $\stackrel{˙}{x}=g\left(x,u\right)$ ), DAE exhibit subtle issues because of the notion of differentiation index and related latent equations—ODE are DAE of index zero for which no latent equation needs to be considered. Prior to generating execution code and calling solvers, the compilation of such languages requires a nontrivial structural analysis step that reduces the differentiation index to a level acceptable by DAE solvers.

Multimode DAE systems, having multiple modes with mode-dependent dynamics and state-dependent mode switching, are much harder to deal with. The main difficulty is the handling of the events of mode change. Unfortunately, the large literature devoted to the numerical analysis of DAEs does not cover the multimode case, typically saying nothing about mode changes. This lack of foundations causes numerous difficulties to the existing modeling tools. Some models are well handled, others are not, with no clear boundary between the two classes. Basically, no tool exists that performs a correct structural analysis taking multiple modes and mode changes into account.

In our work, we developed a comprehensive mathematical approach supporting compilation and code generation for this class of languages. Its core is the structural analysis of multimode DAE systems, taking both multiple modes and mode changes into account. As a byproduct of this structural analysis, we propose well sound criteria for accepting or rejecting models at compile time.

For our mathematical development, we rely on nonstandard analysis, which allows us to cast hybrid systems dynamics to discrete time dynamics with infinitesimal step size, thus providing a uniform framework for handling both continuous dynamics and mode change events.

A big comprehensive document has been written, which will be finalized and submitted next year.

#### Structural analysis of multimode DAE systems

The Hycomes team has obtained two results related to the structural analysis of multimode DAE systems.

#### Impulsive behavior of multimode DAE systems

A major difficulty with multimode DAE systems are the commutations from one mode to another one when the number of equations may change and variables may exhibit impulsive behavior, meaning that not only the trajectory of the system may be discontinuous, but moreover, some variables may be Dirac measures at the instant of mode changes. In  [article] , we compare two radically different approaches to the structural analysis problem of mode changes. The first one is a classical approach, for a restricted class of DAE systems, for which the existence and uniqueness of an impulsive state jump is proved. The second approach is based on nonstandard analysis and is proved to generalize the former approach, to a larger class of multimode DAE systems. The most interesting feature of the latter approach is that it defines the state-jump as the standardization of the solution of a system of system of difference equations, in the framework of nonstandard analysis.

#### An implicit structural analysis method for multimode DAE systems

Modeling languages and tools based on Differential Algebraic Equations (DAE) bring several specific issues that do not exist with modeling languages based on Ordinary Differential Equations. The main problem is the determination of the differentiation index and latent equations. Prior to generating simulation code and calling solvers, the compilation of a model requires a structural analysis step, which reduces the differentiation index to a level acceptable by numerical solvers.

The Modelica language, among others, allows hybrid models with multiple modes, mode-dependent dynamics and state-dependent mode switching. These Multimode DAE (mDAE) systems are much harder to deal with. The main difficulties are (i) the combinatorial explosion of the number of modes, and (ii) the correct handling of mode switchings.

The focus of the paper  [article] is on the first issue, namely: How can one perform a structural analysis of an mDAE in all possible modes, without enumerating these modes? A structural analysis algorithm for mDAE systems is presented, based on an implicit representation of the varying structure of an mDAE. It generalizes J. Pryce’s $\Sigma$ -method  [article] to the multimode case and uses Binary Decision Diagrams (BDD) to represent the mode-dependent structure of an mDAE. The algorithm determines, as a function of the mode, the set of latent equations, the leading variables and the state vector. This is then used to compute a mode-dependent block-triangular decomposition of the system, that can be used to generate simulation code with a mode-dependent scheduling of the blocks of equations.

This method has been implemented in the IsamDAE software. This has allowed the Hycomes team to evaluate the performance and scalability of the method on several examples. In particular, it has been possible to perform the structural analysis of systems with more than 750 equations and ${10}^{23}$ modes.

#### Functional Decision Diagrams: A Unifying Data Structure For Binary Decision Diagrams

Zero-suppressed binary Decision Diagram (ZDD) is a notable alternative data structure of Reduced Ordered Binary Decision Diagram (ROBDD) that achieves a better size compression rate for Boolean functions that evaluate to zero almost everywhere. Deciding a priori which variant is more suitable to represent a given Boolean function is as hard as constructing the diagrams themselves. Moreover, converting a ZDD to a ROBDD (or vice versa) often has a prohibitive cost. This observation could be in fact stated about almost all existing BDD variants as it essentially stems from the non-compatibility of the reduction rules used to build such diagrams. Indeed, they are neither interchangeable nor composable. In  [article], we investigate a novel functional framework, termed Lambda Decision Diagram (LDD), that ambitions to classify the already existing variants as implementations of special LDD models while suggesting, in a principled way, new models that exploit application-dependant properties to further reduce the diagram’s size. We show how the reduction rules we use locally capture the global impact of each variable on the output of the entire function. Such knowledge suggests a variable ordering that sharply contrasts with the static fixed global ordering in the already existing variants as well as the dynamic reordering techniques commonly used.